Segments - by Product Type (Handheld Vibration Cupping Devices, Stationary Vibration Cupping Devices), by Application (Pain Management, Sports Recovery, Physical Therapy, Wellness & Beauty, Others), by End-User (Hospitals & Clinics, Sports & Fitness Centers, Homecare, Others), by Distribution Channel (Online Stores, Specialty Stores, Pharmacies, Others)
The Vibration Cupping Device market was valued at USD 556 Million in 2025 and is projected to reach USD 1.24 Billion by 2034, a CAGR of 9.2%.
| Market size (2025) | USD 556 Million |
|---|---|
| Forecast (2034) | USD 1.24 Billion |
| CAGR (2026-2034) | 9.2% |
| Largest region | North America |
| Segments covered | Product Type, Application, End-User, Distribution Channel |
| Key companies | Therabody, Achedaway, Lure Essentials, Kangzhu (Shanghai Kangzhu Technology Development Co., Ltd.), Hansol Medical Equipment |
This report is updated with the latest market data and insights as of June 2026. Base year: 2025 | Forecast period: 2026-2034
The global vibration cupping device market size reached USD 556 million in 2025, reflecting a robust surge in demand across wellness, healthcare, and sports recovery sectors. The market is expanding at a CAGR of 9.2% and is forecasted to attain a value of USD 1.24 billion by 2034. This significant growth is driven by the increasing popularity of non-invasive therapies, coupled with rising awareness about holistic health and self-care. The market's momentum is further propelled by technological advancements and the integration of smart features in cupping devices, making them more accessible and appealing to a diverse consumer base worldwide.
The growth of the vibration cupping device market is underpinned by several pivotal factors, chief among them being the rising incidence of musculoskeletal disorders and chronic pain conditions globally. As modern lifestyles become more sedentary, the prevalence of back pain, neck pain, and related ailments has surged, prompting individuals to seek alternative therapies. Vibration cupping devices offer a unique blend of traditional cupping therapy and modern vibration technology, providing enhanced pain relief and muscle relaxation. The non-invasive and drug-free nature of these devices makes them an attractive option for patients seeking to avoid the side effects associated with pharmaceutical treatments. A growing body of clinical evidence supporting the efficacy of vibration cupping in improving blood circulation, reducing inflammation, and accelerating tissue recovery continues to boost market adoption across diverse demographics. Consumers seeking complementary options similar to those explored in the broader percussive and vibration therapy category are increasingly discovering cupping-based modalities as a practical and effective addition to their routines.
Another key growth driver is the increasing integration of vibration cupping devices into sports recovery and physical therapy protocols. Professional athletes, fitness enthusiasts, and physiotherapists are leveraging these devices to accelerate muscle recovery, reduce soreness, and prevent injuries. The sports and fitness industry's endorsement of vibration cupping as a scientifically backed recovery tool has significantly expanded its user base. Additionally, the proliferation of wellness and beauty trends, especially among urban populations, has fueled demand in spa and beauty salon settings, where devices are used for skin rejuvenation, cellulite reduction, and overall wellness. The rise of personalized and at-home wellness solutions, facilitated by easy-to-use handheld devices, has further democratized access to vibration cupping therapy, making it a mainstream self-care practice. This trend mirrors growing consumer interest in tools like vibration-assisted body rollers that deliver targeted relief at home.
Technological innovation represents another crucial growth catalyst. Manufacturers are continually enhancing product offerings with features such as adjustable vibration intensities, smart sensors, wireless connectivity, and ergonomic designs. The integration of mobile applications and digital health platforms allows users to track therapy sessions, monitor progress, and receive personalized recommendations, aligning with the broader trend of digital health. Furthermore, aggressive marketing strategies, celebrity endorsements, and educational campaigns have played a significant role in raising consumer awareness and fostering trust in vibration cupping devices as a legitimate therapeutic modality. The historical data from 2019 to 2024 confirms steady compound growth, positioning 2025 as a strong inflection point for accelerated market penetration.
From a regional perspective, North America currently dominates the global vibration cupping device market, accounting for approximately 33.5% of revenue in 2025. This leadership is attributed to the high prevalence of chronic pain conditions, advanced healthcare infrastructure, and a strong culture of wellness and fitness. Europe follows closely, driven by increasing healthcare expenditure and growing acceptance of alternative therapies. Asia Pacific is emerging as the fastest-growing market, fueled by rising disposable incomes, expanding middle-class populations, and a rich tradition of cupping therapy in China and South Korea. Latin America and the Middle East and Africa are also witnessing steady growth, supported by improving healthcare access and rising consumer awareness. Overall, the global market landscape is characterized by dynamic growth opportunities and evolving consumer preferences across all regions.
The vibration cupping device market is segmented by product type into handheld vibration cupping devices and stationary vibration cupping devices, each catering to distinct user needs and application environments. Handheld devices have gained significant traction due to their portability, ease of use, and suitability for at-home therapy, commanding approximately 63.5% of the market in 2025. These devices are designed for individual use, allowing consumers to conveniently target specific areas of the body without professional assistance. Handheld vibration cupping devices typically feature ergonomic designs, rechargeable batteries, and customizable settings, making them ideal for personal wellness routines and on-the-go recovery. The growing trend of self-care and the increasing adoption of wearable health technologies have further propelled demand, especially among millennials and urban populations. This handheld device trend is closely related to the wider adoption of handheld vibrating massage tools for localized muscle relief.
Stationary vibration cupping devices, representing approximately 36.5% of the market, are predominantly used in clinical and professional settings such as hospitals, physiotherapy centers, and wellness spas. These devices are typically more powerful and offer advanced features including multiple cups, programmable therapy modes, and integrated safety mechanisms. Stationary devices are favored by healthcare professionals for their ability to deliver consistent and controlled therapy across multiple patients. The increasing incorporation of vibration cupping into physical rehabilitation programs and sports medicine has bolstered demand for stationary devices. The rising number of specialized clinics and wellness centers offering cupping therapy as part of their service portfolio has contributed to the steady growth of this segment through the 2026-2034 forecast period.
Technological advancements have played a pivotal role in shaping the product landscape. Manufacturers are investing in research and development to introduce innovative features such as smart sensors, wireless connectivity, and user-friendly interfaces. These enhancements improve the efficacy and safety of the devices while enhancing user engagement and satisfaction. The integration of mobile applications and digital health platforms enables users to customize their therapy sessions, track their progress, and receive real-time feedback. This drives adoption across both handheld and stationary segments. Notably, the growing adoption of traditional therapeutic accessories such as silicone-based cupping cups alongside vibration-integrated models reflects a maturing consumer base that values both classic and tech-enhanced therapy formats.
Market trends indicate a growing preference for multifunctional devices that combine cupping, vibration, and other therapeutic modalities such as heat and red light therapy. Such hybrid devices offer comprehensive solutions for pain management, muscle recovery, and skin rejuvenation, appealing to a broader consumer base. The increasing availability of affordable and technologically advanced vibration cupping devices has democratized access to therapy, making it accessible to a wider audience. As consumer awareness and acceptance of vibration cupping continue to rise through 2034, both handheld and stationary devices are expected to witness sustained demand, with manufacturers focusing on product differentiation and user-centric innovations to capture market share.
| Attributes | Details |
| Report Title | Vibration Cupping Device Market Research Report 2025-2034 |
| By Product Type | Handheld Vibration Cupping Devices, Stationary Vibration Cupping Devices |
| By Application | Pain Management, Sports Recovery, Physical Therapy, Wellness & Beauty, Others |
| By End-User | Hospitals & Clinics, Sports & Fitness Centers, Homecare, Others |
| By Distribution Channel | Online Stores, Specialty Stores, Pharmacies, Others |
| Regions Covered | North America, Europe, APAC, Latin America, MEA |
| Base Year | 2025 |
| Historic Data | 2019-2024 |
| Forecast Period | 2026-2034 |
| Number of Pages | 252 |
| Number of Tables & Figures | 318 |
| Customization Available | Yes, the report can be customized as per your need. |
The application landscape of the vibration cupping device market is diverse, encompassing pain management, sports recovery, physical therapy, wellness & beauty, and other emerging uses. Pain management remains the dominant application segment, accounting for the largest share of market revenue in 2025. The rising prevalence of chronic pain conditions such as lower back pain, arthritis, and fibromyalgia has driven the adoption of vibration cupping devices as a complementary therapy. These devices offer a non-invasive, drug-free alternative for pain relief, making them particularly appealing to patients seeking to minimize reliance on pharmaceuticals. Clinical studies have demonstrated the efficacy of vibration cupping in reducing pain intensity, improving mobility, and enhancing quality of life, further validating its role in pain management protocols across hospitals, clinics, and home settings.
Sports recovery is another high-growth application segment, fueled by increasing participation in sports and fitness activities worldwide. Professional athletes, coaches, and sports therapists are incorporating vibration cupping devices into their recovery regimens to accelerate muscle repair, reduce soreness, and prevent injuries. The ability of vibration cupping to enhance blood circulation, promote lymphatic drainage, and facilitate the removal of metabolic waste has made it a staple in sports medicine. The endorsement of vibration cupping therapy by prominent athletes and sports organizations has further boosted its credibility and adoption among amateur and recreational athletes. The broader consumer trend toward body recovery tools, including the whole-body vibration platform segment, reinforces the expanding market for vibration-based recovery modalities.
Physical therapy represents a significant application area, particularly in the rehabilitation of musculoskeletal injuries and post-surgical recovery. Physiotherapists leverage vibration cupping devices to improve tissue elasticity, reduce adhesions, and restore functional mobility in patients recovering from injuries or surgeries. Integration of vibration cupping into physical therapy protocols has been shown to enhance treatment outcomes and reduce recovery times, driving demand in clinical settings. The increasing prevalence of orthopedic conditions and the growing emphasis on early intervention and rehabilitation have further expanded the application of vibration cupping in physical therapy through the 2026-2034 forecast window.
The wellness and beauty segment is witnessing rapid growth, driven by the rising popularity of holistic and non-invasive beauty treatments. Vibration cupping devices are widely used in spas and beauty salons for skin rejuvenation, cellulite reduction, and facial toning. The combination of cupping and vibration is understood to stimulate collagen production, improve skin texture, and promote a youthful appearance. The growing consumer preference for natural and non-surgical beauty solutions, coupled with the influence of social media and wellness influencers, has fueled demand in this segment. Complementary devices in the traditional wellness category, such as app-connected gua sha tools, are often purchased alongside vibration cupping devices, highlighting the cross-category appeal of holistic skin and muscle care. As the boundaries between health, wellness, and beauty continue to blur, vibration cupping is poised to become an integral part of holistic wellness routines through 2034.
The end-user segmentation of the vibration cupping device market includes hospitals & clinics, sports & fitness centers, homecare, and others. Hospitals and clinics constitute the largest end-user segment in 2025, driven by the widespread adoption of vibration cupping therapy in pain management, physical rehabilitation, and post-operative care. Healthcare professionals value the efficacy, safety, and versatility of vibration cupping devices in treating a range of conditions, from musculoskeletal injuries to chronic pain syndromes. The integration of vibration cupping into multidisciplinary treatment protocols has enhanced patient outcomes and satisfaction, reinforcing its role in clinical practice.
Sports and fitness centers represent a rapidly growing end-user segment, reflecting the increasing recognition of vibration cupping as an essential tool for athletic performance and recovery. Gyms, sports clubs, and fitness studios are incorporating vibration cupping devices into their offerings to attract and retain members seeking advanced recovery solutions. The availability of professional-grade devices, coupled with the expertise of certified trainers and therapists, has made vibration cupping therapy accessible to a broader audience of athletes and fitness enthusiasts. The growing popularity of group fitness classes and wellness retreats has further expanded the market for vibration cupping devices in sports and fitness settings across both developed and emerging markets.
The homecare segment is experiencing significant growth, driven by the rising demand for convenient and cost-effective self-care solutions. Handheld vibration cupping devices are particularly popular among consumers seeking to manage pain, improve mobility, or enhance wellness from the comfort of their homes. The user-friendly design, portability, and affordability of these devices have democratized access to vibration cupping therapy, enabling individuals to take control of their health and well-being. The shift toward home-based wellness that accelerated during 2020 and 2021 has created lasting behavioral changes, with homecare adoption remaining strong in 2025 and expected to continue growing through 2034.
Other end-users, such as wellness spas, beauty salons, and alternative medicine practitioners, are also contributing to the growth of the vibration cupping device market. These establishments offer specialized cupping therapy services for beauty enhancement, relaxation, and holistic wellness. The integration of vibration cupping into spa and wellness programs has enhanced the appeal of these services, attracting health-conscious consumers seeking non-invasive and rejuvenating treatments. As the market continues to evolve, manufacturers are focusing on developing tailored solutions for different end-user segments, ensuring broad accessibility and adoption across diverse settings globally.
The distribution channel landscape for vibration cupping devices is segmented into online stores, specialty stores, pharmacies, and others. Online stores have emerged as the dominant distribution channel, accounting for the largest share of sales in 2025. The convenience, wide product selection, and competitive pricing offered by e-commerce platforms have made them the preferred choice for consumers seeking vibration cupping devices. The proliferation of digital marketing, influencer partnerships, and targeted advertising has further amplified the visibility and reach of these products online. The ability to access detailed product information, customer reviews, and instructional videos continues to empower consumers to make informed purchasing decisions, a trend that is expected to intensify through 2034.
Specialty stores, including wellness boutiques, sports equipment outlets, and medical device retailers, play a crucial role in the distribution of vibration cupping devices. These stores offer personalized service, expert guidance, and product demonstrations, enhancing the customer experience and building trust. Specialty stores are particularly popular among first-time buyers and individuals seeking professional-grade devices for clinical or athletic use. The growing trend of experiential retail, where consumers can try products before purchasing, has further strengthened the position of specialty stores in the overall distribution mix.
Pharmacies represent a significant distribution channel, especially for medically certified and clinically approved vibration cupping devices. The endorsement of healthcare professionals and the availability of devices in trusted pharmacy chains have bolstered consumer confidence and facilitated adoption among patients seeking pain relief and rehabilitation solutions. Pharmacies also serve as important points of access for elderly and less digitally engaged consumers who prefer in-person consultations and guidance when selecting therapeutic devices.
Other distribution channels, such as direct sales, wellness spas, and alternative medicine clinics, contribute to the market's reach and accessibility. Direct sales models, including subscription services and home demonstrations, have gained popularity in certain regions, enabling manufacturers to engage directly with consumers and provide tailored recommendations. As the market continues to expand through 2034, manufacturers are adopting omnichannel strategies to maximize reach and cater to the evolving preferences of diverse consumer segments across all major geographies.
The vibration cupping device market presents a multitude of opportunities for innovation, expansion, and value creation through the 2026-2034 forecast period. One of the most promising opportunities lies in the integration of advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, IoT, and data analytics into vibration cupping devices. Smart devices capable of monitoring user progress, providing real-time feedback, and personalizing therapy protocols are expected to drive the next wave of market growth. The convergence of digital health and wellness trends, coupled with the increasing adoption of wearable technologies, creates fertile ground for connected and intelligent cupping solutions. Additionally, the expansion of distribution channels in emerging markets, particularly across Southeast Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East, offers significant growth potential for manufacturers seeking to tap into new consumer segments and geographies.
Another major opportunity is the growing demand for holistic and preventive healthcare solutions. As consumers become more proactive about their health and well-being, the appeal of non-invasive, drug-free therapies like vibration cupping is expected to rise through 2034. The increasing prevalence of chronic diseases, coupled with the limitations of conventional treatments, has created a strong market pull for alternative and complementary therapies. Manufacturers can capitalize on this trend by developing targeted marketing campaigns, educational initiatives, and partnerships with healthcare professionals to raise awareness and foster trust. The expansion of product offerings to address specific health conditions such as arthritis, fibromyalgia, and sports injuries can further enhance market penetration. Synergies with adjacent therapy categories, such as the growing demand for multi-piece vacuum cupping body sets, present cross-selling and bundling opportunities for manufacturers and retailers alike.
Despite the numerous opportunities, the vibration cupping device market faces certain restraining factors that could impede growth. Regulatory challenges, particularly related to product safety, efficacy, and certification, pose significant barriers to market entry and expansion. The lack of standardized guidelines and varying regulatory requirements across regions can create compliance complexities for manufacturers. Additionally, concerns about the potential side effects and misuse of vibration cupping devices may hinder adoption among certain consumer segments. The presence of counterfeit and substandard products in the market also poses risks to consumer safety and brand reputation. Addressing these challenges through robust quality assurance, regulatory compliance, and consumer education will be critical for sustaining long-term growth and trust in the market through 2034.
The regional distribution of the vibration cupping device market is characterized by significant variation in market size, growth rates, and adoption patterns. North America holds the largest share of the global market at approximately 33.5%, with revenues reaching an estimated USD 186 million in 2025. The region's leadership is driven by high healthcare spending, advanced medical infrastructure, and a strong culture of wellness and fitness. The United States accounts for the majority of regional demand, supported by widespread awareness, favorable reimbursement considerations, and the presence of leading market players. Canada also contributes significantly to market growth, with increasing adoption of alternative therapies and government support for healthcare innovation. The North American market is projected to grow at a CAGR of approximately 8.8% from 2026 to 2034.
Europe is the second-largest market for vibration cupping devices, representing approximately 26.2% of global revenues, with a market size of approximately USD 146 million in 2025. The region's growth is fueled by rising healthcare expenditures, a growing aging population, and increasing acceptance of complementary and alternative medicine. Key markets including Germany, the United Kingdom, and France are witnessing robust demand for vibration cupping devices in both clinical and homecare settings. The emphasis on preventive healthcare and wellness, coupled with favorable regulatory frameworks, has created a conducive environment for market expansion in Europe throughout the 2026-2034 forecast period.
The Asia Pacific region is emerging as the fastest-growing market, representing approximately 22.8% of global revenues, with an estimated market size of USD 127 million in 2025. The region's rapid growth is driven by rising disposable incomes, expanding middle-class populations, and a rich tradition of cupping therapy in countries including China, South Korea, and Japan. Increasing urbanization, growing awareness of health and wellness, and the proliferation of e-commerce platforms have further accelerated adoption of vibration cupping devices. The Asia Pacific market is forecast to record the highest regional CAGR of approximately 11.1% from 2026 to 2034. Latin America and the Middle East and Africa are also witnessing steady growth, with market sizes of approximately USD 56 million and USD 41 million respectively in 2025. These regions are benefiting from improving healthcare access, rising consumer awareness, and strategic investments by global and regional players. Overall, the regional outlook for the vibration cupping device market remains highly positive, with dynamic growth opportunities across both developed and emerging markets through 2034.
The vibration cupping device market in 2025 is characterized by a competitive landscape marked by innovation, strategic partnerships, and a constant drive to enhance product quality and user experience. Leading companies are investing heavily in research and development to introduce advanced features such as smart sensors, wireless connectivity, and customizable therapy protocols. The market is also witnessing increased collaboration between manufacturers, healthcare providers, and technology firms to develop integrated solutions that cater to the evolving needs of consumers. The focus on product differentiation, brand building, and customer engagement has intensified competition, prompting companies to adopt aggressive marketing strategies and expand their global footprint across all five major regions.
Emerging players and startups are making significant inroads into the vibration cupping device market, leveraging digital platforms, innovative business models, and targeted marketing campaigns to capture share. These companies are often more agile and responsive to changing consumer preferences, enabling them to introduce novel products and quickly adapt to market trends. The growing trend of direct-to-consumer sales, facilitated by e-commerce and social media, has lowered entry barriers and created new opportunities for smaller players to compete with established brands. However, the market's competitive intensity also poses challenges related to pricing pressures, product commoditization, and the risk of counterfeit products that require vigilant brand protection strategies.
Major companies operating in the vibration cupping device market in 2025 include Therabody, Achedaway, Lure Essentials, Guangzhou Yikang Medical Equipment Industrial Co., Ltd., and Hansol Medical Equipment. Therabody is renowned for its innovative approach to percussive and vibration therapy and has expanded its product portfolio to include advanced vibration cupping devices with smart features and app integration. Achedaway has built a strong reputation for high-performance recovery tools, combining cupping and vibration in compact, user-friendly designs aimed at athletes and active consumers. Lure Essentials targets the wellness and beauty segment with stylish, accessible cupping solutions suitable for home use. Guangzhou Yikang Medical Equipment Industrial Co. and Hansol Medical Equipment are leading players in the Asia Pacific region, known for extensive product ranges, competitive pricing, and strong distribution networks across clinical and consumer channels.
These companies are continuously striving to enhance their competitive positions through product innovation, strategic partnerships, and expansion into new markets. They are also investing in consumer education, training programs, and after-sales support to build brand loyalty and trust. Quality assurance, regulatory compliance, and customer satisfaction have become key differentiators in the market. As the vibration cupping device market continues to evolve through 2034, the ability to anticipate and respond to emerging trends, technological advancements, and changing consumer preferences will be critical for sustained success and leadership in this dynamic industry.
The Vibration Cupping Device market has been segmented on the basis of
Leading players in 2025 include Therabody, Achedaway, Lure Essentials, Shanghai Kangzhu Technology Development Co., Hansol Medical Equipment, GESS International, Cupping Warehouse, Bellabaci International, MediCupping, Guangzhou Yikang Medical Equipment Industrial Co., Hubei Boshi Medical Instrument Co., Cupping USA, and Shenzhen Merican Optoelectronic Technology Co. These companies compete on innovation, product quality, regulatory compliance, and expanding global distribution networks.
Major opportunities include the integration of AI and IoT for personalized therapy, expansion into underpenetrated emerging markets, and the growing consumer preference for preventive and holistic healthcare. Partnerships with healthcare providers and sports organizations offer further growth avenues. Key challenges include navigating varying regulatory requirements across regions, combating counterfeit and substandard products, building consumer trust in newer markets, and managing pricing pressures in a competitive landscape.
In 2025, the market is being shaped by the integration of IoT connectivity, Bluetooth-enabled mobile applications, and AI-driven therapy personalization. Multi-frequency vibration motors, rechargeable battery systems, and ergonomic form factors are improving user experience. Hybrid devices combining cupping with heat, red light therapy, and microcurrent stimulation are gaining traction. Wearable and app-connected smart cupping platforms are expected to define the next generation of product innovation through the 2026-2034 forecast period.
Online stores are the dominant distribution channel in 2025, offering broad product selection, competitive pricing, and consumer reviews that facilitate informed purchasing decisions. Specialty stores, including wellness boutiques and sports equipment retailers, provide personalized guidance and hands-on demonstrations. Pharmacies serve as trusted access points for medically certified devices, particularly for clinical and elderly users. Direct sales and spa or clinic-based channels round out the distribution landscape.
Hospitals and clinics are the largest end-user segment, leveraging vibration cupping in pain management and rehabilitation programs. Sports and fitness centers are the fastest-growing segment, integrating these devices into athlete recovery protocols. The homecare segment is expanding significantly, driven by demand for convenient, portable self-care solutions. Wellness spas, beauty salons, and alternative medicine clinics also represent important end-user categories.
Pain management is the leading application, addressing chronic conditions such as lower back pain, arthritis, and fibromyalgia. Sports recovery ranks second, with professional and recreational athletes using devices to accelerate muscle repair and reduce soreness. Physical therapy and post-surgical rehabilitation represent a significant clinical application. The wellness and beauty segment is growing rapidly, with devices used in spas for skin rejuvenation, cellulite reduction, and facial toning.
The market is segmented into handheld vibration cupping devices and stationary vibration cupping devices. Handheld devices dominate with approximately 63.5% market share in 2025, prized for their portability, ergonomic design, and suitability for at-home use. Stationary devices, accounting for around 36.5%, are favored in clinical and professional settings for their higher power output, advanced therapy modes, and ability to treat multiple patients efficiently.
North America leads the global market with a 33.5% revenue share in 2025, supported by advanced healthcare infrastructure and a strong wellness culture. Europe holds the second-largest share at approximately 26.2%, driven by growing acceptance of complementary therapies and an aging population. Asia Pacific, accounting for around 22.8% of the market, is the fastest-growing region, propelled by rising disposable incomes, urbanization, and a deep-rooted tradition of cupping therapy in China, South Korea, and Japan.
Key growth drivers include the increasing prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders and chronic pain conditions, the expanding use of vibration cupping in sports recovery and physical therapy, growing consumer demand for drug-free wellness solutions, and rapid technological advancements such as smart sensors, app connectivity, and adjustable vibration intensities. Rising health awareness and the mainstreaming of self-care routines are also fueling sustained market expansion through 2034.
The global vibration cupping device market reached USD 556 million in 2025 and is projected to grow at a CAGR of 9.2% from 2026 to 2034, reaching approximately USD 1.24 billion by 2034. This robust growth is driven by rising consumer interest in non-invasive therapies, expanding sports recovery applications, and continuous technological innovation across both handheld and stationary device categories.